In education, confusion is usually treated as a problem to eliminate as quickly as possible. Teachers re-explain, students ask for answers, and silence is often seen as failure. However, research in cognitive science suggests that productive confusion – a short, managed period of not understanding – is one of the strongest drivers of deep learning.

Productive confusion occurs when students struggle just enough to activate prior knowledge without becoming overwhelmed. During this phase, the brain is actively forming connections, testing assumptions, and identifying gaps in understanding. When clarification comes after this struggle, learning becomes more durable and transferable.

This is different from unproductive confusion, where students feel lost, anxious, or disengaged. The key difference is structure. Productive confusion is intentional and time-limited. For example, a teacher might present a challenging problem before teaching the formula, or ask students to predict an outcome before revealing the correct explanation. The discomfort is brief, but the payoff is significant.

One study in mathematics education found that students who attempted complex problems before receiving instruction performed better on later transfer tasks than students who received step-by-step guidance from the start. The initial struggle made the explanation more meaningful.

Despite this evidence, many classrooms avoid confusion entirely, often due to time pressure or fear of student frustration. As a result, students may appear to understand content in the moment but struggle to apply it independently later.

Teaching students that confusion is a normal and valuable part of learning changes this dynamic. When learners expect confusion, they are more likely to persist, ask better questions, and engage actively with material.

Productive confusion does not slow learning – it strengthens it. By allowing space for struggle before clarity, educators can help students move from memorisation to genuine understanding.

Oliver Fletcher